The Doctrine of
the Four Noble Truths
The emergence and the cessation of
beings as realized by the Buddha are explained under the title of Four Noble
Truths.[1]The real nature of emergence of the being is further analyzed into the nature
of what is emerged or produced and the way of emergence or production. The
nature of what is emerged is explained by the Buddha under the title of Noble
Truth of Suffering (Dukkha-ariyasacca) and the way how the emergence
come into being is explained under the Noble Truth of Emergence of Suffering (Dukkha-samudaya-ariyasacca).
The principle of cessation described in the doctrine of Paţiccasamuppāda is further analyzed into the nature of
cessation (Noble Truth of Cessation of Suffering) (Dukkha-nirodha-ariyasacca)
and the way of cessation (Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of
Suffering) (Dukkha-nirodha-gāmani-patipadā-ariyasacca).
Noble Truth of
Suffering
(Dukkha-ariyasacca)
The truth of suffering deals with the
real nature of the existence of beings. As discussed under the doctrine of Paţiccasamuppāda, existence of
the being is the continual process of production of the causes and conditions.
The true nature of what is produced by the causes and conditions is that it is
subjected to destruction (Yam kimci
samudaya-dhammam sabbam tam nirodha-dhammam).[2]
Therefore, the existence of being, in other words, is a series of production
and destruction. There are three characteristics inherited by what is causally
produced, namely, impermanence (Anicca),
suffering (Dukkha) and non-ego (Anatta).
The term Samkhata, or Samkhāra
is
the name for what is produced causally or conditionally. Those three
characteristics are invariably accompanied with sankhāra-s. This true
nature of the existence of beings is explained in the doctrine of the first
truth.
In the doctrine of the First Noble
Truth, dukkha or suffering does not
mean only physical and mental suffering or painfulness as we generally
understand from the word Dukkha. It
has a wider meaning connoting different aspects of suffering. While explaining
the Noble Truth of Suffering in his first sermon (Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta), the Buddha mentioned that the five
aggregate of grasping is suffering, in brief.[3]
This is further attested to by the Buddha by saying: “O Bhikkhus, what is
dukkha? It should be said that it is the five aggregate of grasping.”[4]
Existence of being is analyzed in
Buddhism into five aggregates of grasping in order to give a better
understanding of the nature of the existence. The five groups of aggregates are
forms (physical aspect - Rūpa), feelings (Vedanā),
perceptions (Saññā),
mental formations (Samkhāra), and
consciousness (Viññāna). These five
groups of aggregates of grasping are really contained in the factors given in
the formula, which explains the emergence of the existence of beings in
accordance with the doctrine of Paţiccasamuppāda. All the groups
of aggregates of grasping exclusively come under Sankhāra
as they are causally conditioned. The most fundamental characteristics of
causally composite things, as earlier mentioned, are impermanence or change (Anicca),
suffering (Dukkha) and non-ego (Anatta). Impermanence itself is
suffering. Whatever is impermanent is suffering (Yadaniccam tam dukkham).[5]
Causally conditioned emergence necessarily leads to change and destruction. It
is the nature of beings that they are always delighted with permanence of what
they like. When it is not there, it leads to the disappointment in the mind of
beings, so it is suffering. This suffering, generated by change, (Viparināma-dukkha[6]) covers one
aspect of dukkha in the Noble Truth of Suffering.
Apart from this aspect of suffering,
beings are subjected to different kinds of physical and mental sufferings due
to different reasons, such as birth, decay, death, sorrow, grief, lamentation,
despair, distress, association with unpleasant people or such conditions,
separation from pleasant people or such conditions, not receiving what one
likes, and getting what one dislikes. This kind of suffering, which is commonly
accepted as suffering (Dukkha-dukkha), is also included in the Noble
Truth of Suffering.[7]
Whatever is impermanent and suffering is
unsubstantial. There is nothing to be taken as substance or immutable soul.
This non-ego of the being is shown by the Buddha with the analysis of the being
into five groups of aggregates. It is pointed out that there is nothing
permanent within or outside the five groups of aggregates.[8]
The concept of soul is by definition permanent, conscious and blissful (Sat cit ānanda or sukha).
Causally conditioned existence of the beings has nothing to do with the
permanent soul or substance. Hence, it is suffering. This dependent nature or
non-self nature of the existence of beings is itself suffering. This is known
as Samkhata-dukkha, which covers the third aspect of the Noble Truth of
Suffering. It is undeniable that Buddhism accepts different kinds of happiness
obtainable by the beings, especially by the human beings from their within and
without. At the same time, it is unequivocally stressed, that none of them has
permanent status, and they finally turn to be unhappiness or suffering, for
they all come under the category of Samkhata, or what is produced by the
causes and conditions. Therefore, the truth of suffering presented by the
Buddha is by no means a pessimistic interpretation of the nature, but
certainly, a realistic one.
Noble Truth of
Emergence of Suffering
(Dukkha-samudaya-ariyasacca)
The second truth reveals the way how the
suffering comes into being. As earlier pointed out, suffering is nothing but
the existence of being, or in other words, existence of five groups of
aggregates. We have already discussed the way how this existence arises under
the doctrine of Paţiccasamuppāda.
If it is so, then does this truth of emergence of suffering reveal another way
of emergence of the existence? No, it certainly does not. It also explains the
conditional arising of existence in accordance with the doctrine of Paţiccasamuppāda.
The only difference is that the truth of emergence of suffering starts with
another factor or cause, that is to say, craving or clinging (Tanhā)
instead of Ignorance (Avijjā) in the twelve
factors’ formula of Paţiccasamuppāda.
Whatever has a conditional existence has
no one original root cause, as every cause is conditioned by another cause or
causes. Even the ignorance is not a first cause or uncaused cause, as the
eternalists ascribe it to the concept of soul. The whole existence of causal
genesis has to be understood as a cyclic existence for it has no starting
point. Therefore, it is possible to begin from any cause out of the causal
cycle as a starting point in the explanation of existence or suffering. The
Buddha has pointed out craving as the cause of suffering in his first sermon,
for the simple reason that it is the most approximate and most powerful cause
for the emergence of suffering. The proximity of the craving to the emergence
of suffering is quite evident, even from the twelve factors’ formula when it
says: “Through craving (Tanhā) is conditioned
grasping (Bhava); through grasping is conditioned becoming; through becoming is
conditioned birth (Jāti).”[9]
Becoming (Bhava) and birth (Jāti) together
constitute the emergence of suffering or existence of a being as is
conventionally accepted.
The craving is considered as the most
powerful cause for the emergence of suffering. Introducing the craving as the
cause for suffering, the Buddha stated its nature as follows:
“It is this craving which produces
re-becoming (ponobhavikā), and which is
bound up with passionate greed (nandirāgasahagatā),
and which finds fresh delight now here and now there (tatratatrābhinandini), namely, craving for sense-pleasure (kāma-tanhā), craving for
existence (becoming) (bhava-tanhā) and craving
for non-existence (vibhava-tanhā).”[10]
According to this explanation of
craving, it has the characteristics of producing re-becoming or re-existence of
greed, which gets attached to existence and sense objects (nandirāga),
of delighting now here and now there, and of craving for sensory pleasure and
existence or non-existence. All these characteristics of craving express its
commanding power to bind up the being with the re-becoming and re-existence.
So, it does not allow the being, who is with it, to free himself from the Samsāric bond.
Craving is the immediate cause, not only
for the arising and existence of being or in other words, five aggregates
(suffering), but also for all sorts of miseries, evils, problems and struggles,
which come under sufferings and appear in individual life or social life of the
beings.[11]
Sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and distress are the results of that kind of
miseries. Very famous stanza of Dhammapada emphasizes that because of
craving, sorrow and fear come to be.[12]
In the second noble truth, it is mainly
intended that the craving is the cause of emergence of five aggregates
grasping, which is the dukkha in the philosophical sense of Buddhism (p.13).
Craving leading to grasping (tanhā paccayā upādānam), produces
volitional formations (samkhāra).
Volitional formation or in other words, kamma-s are mainly responsible
for producing future renewed existence. One of the discourses in Samyutta nikāya
nicely explains this situation in the following way:
“Brethren, what one intends and what one
plans and whatever one has a tendency: this becomes a basis for the persistence
of consciousness. When there is a basis there is a support for the establishing
of consciousness. When consciousness is established and has come to growth,
there is the production of future renewed existence. When there is the future
of renewed existence, then there arise decay-and-death, grief, suffering,
sorrow and despair. Such is the origin of this entire mass of suffering.[13]
In this quotation, ‘what one intends’,
‘what one plans’ and ‘what one has a tendency’ refer to volitional formations.
These volitional formations become the object for a new consciousness to arise
in the renewed existence. Consciousness and the name and forms (nāma-rūpa) arise together
simultaneously, being mutually conditioned.[14]
Emergence of new consciousness together with name and forms is nothing but the
five aggregates of grasping, in other words, the suffering.
Further, the relationship between
craving and the volitional formation, which has direct connection with the
future becoming and birth (dukkha), was brought out by the Buddha in the
following way:
“If there be passion, brethren, if there
be delight, if there be craving as to solid food, it is there that
consciousness is firmly placed and comes to growth. Where consciousness is
firmly placed and comes to growth, there is a descent of name and form. Where
there is a descent of name and form, there is growth of volitional formation (sankhāra). Where there is a growth of volitional
formation, there in the future is renewed becoming and birth. Where in the
future is renewed becoming and rebirth, there in the future is decay and
death.”[15]
Ignorance and craving are the two main
factors that provide the driving force for the continuation of existence. The
Buddha has pointed out:
‘O Bhikkhus, this cycle of continuity
is without a visible end, and the first beginning of beings wandering and
running round enveloped in ignorance (avijjā) and bound down by the fetters of
craving (tanha) is not to be perceived.’[16]
In the twelve factors’ formula of Paţiccasamuppāda,
ignorance has been taken as the first factor in order to show the whole samsāric continuation of suffering in the past, present and
future. According to the explanation given by Venerable Buddhaghosa, factors of
ignorance and volitional formations belong to the past existence, while
consciousness, name and forms, six faculties, contact, feelings, craving and
grasping belongs to the present existence. Becoming, birth, decay, and death
etc. belong to the future existence.[17]
It can be supposed that the Buddha had the intention to show how the future
existence of being comes into being in his introduction of the Second Noble
Truth. Hence the Buddha may have presented craving as the source of suffering.
On the other hand, there is another
important point to be discussed here, regarding the question as to why the
Buddha has taken craving as the cause of suffering in the second noble truth.
As we all know that the strength of a cycle depends on its weakest point.
Craving is not only the immediate cause for the arising of suffering, it is
also the weakest and easily breakable factor among the other factors of the
cycle of existence, for craving is the spontaneous activity of the being.
Except ignorance and volitional formation, all the other factors come into
being as a natural process. The being has not any responsibility for their
emergence. But the craving on the contrary, arises as the result of the will (chanda)
of the being. Therefore, if the being wills to stop craving, he can do it and
achieve the freedom from suffering. The Buddha’s main purpose of preaching the
doctrine of the Four Noble Truths was to show the possibility of achieving the
liberation of suffering.
Anyhow, there does not arise a question
of contradiction by showing ignorance as a factor for emergence of suffering in
one place and craving in another place.
Noble Truth of
Cessation of Suffering
(Dukkha-nirodha-ariyasacca)
We came to know that the terms such as
existence of beings, five groups of aggregates of grasping and suffering, in
the context of being in Buddhism, have no different connotation and they refer
to one and the same thing. That is to say, in most popular Buddhist term, Dukkha. The Buddha realized in his
enlightenment, the way of emergence of Dukkha
and its cessation through the understanding of the doctrine of Paţiccasamuppāda. The purpose of
the Buddha to present what he has understood and realized to mankind, was to
make them realize the nature of suffering, the way of its emergence, its
causation and the way of its cessation. In the Third Noble Truth, the Buddha
put forward the cessation of suffering, the realization of which, is the final
goal of Buddhism.
Suffering, as the word denotes, is a
long standing and long lasting burden. This burden has to be kept away. Keeping
away of the burden is itself the freedom. The only one available way of keeping
the suffering away is to destroy its root cause, the craving. “What is produced
by the causes ceases to be, with the destruction of causes.”[18]
It is the law realized by the Buddha, which is applicable to the entire
universe. Both emergence and cessation are correlative and coincided in what is
produced. Seeing this inevitable nature of things in the world is called eye of
Dhamma (dhammacakkhu).[19]
People arrive at the wrong conclusion such as eternalism, and nihilism
regarding the beings and things in the world, as the result of not seeing
properly this dual characteristics inherited by the beings and the things.[20]
When the cause for suffering is the
craving as we saw in the Second Noble Truth, then its cessation inevitably
implies the complete destruction of craving. Therefore, the Buddha introduces
the Third Noble Truth as ‘it is the complete cessation of that very craving,
giving it up, renouncing it, emancipation from it, detachment from it’.[21]
Though this state of cessation of
suffering is variously described in Buddhist discourses, all the
descriptions ultimately referred to the
same state of emancipation from suffering, achieved through the destruction of
defilements, which is responsible for the emergence of suffering.
Ariyapariyesana sutta describes it as
‘calming of all volitional formations, giving up all defilements, extinction
of craving, detachment, cessation, nibbāna’.[22]
The most popular term for this state of
detachment is Nibbāna, which
means the extinction from all cankers (sabbūpadhipatinissaggo). The term nibbāna always refer to extinction from
suffering (dukkhakkhaya), extinction from defilements (kilesakkhaya),
extinction from cankers (āsavakkhaya), and so on.
When we examine the definitions and
descriptions given to this state of affairs in the early Buddhist discourses,
it is interesting to note that most of them appeared in the negative sense. The
following are the examples:
Tanhakkhaya (cessation of
craving)
Nirodha (cessation)
Nibbāna (extinction,
blowing out)
Virāga (detachment)
Dukkhakkhaya (cessation of
suffering)
Asamkhata (unmade or
unconditioned)
All these words represent nothing
positive in the Nibbāna. Disappearance
of already existed suffering or some positive elements, which cause suffering,
is itself Nibbāna or emancipation.
Though these negative terms negate something, which existed before Nibbāna is achieved, it should be
clearly emphasized here, that they do not negate the Nibbāna
itself. It is an experience, which should be individually known by the wise (paccattam
veditabbo viññūhi). It is a knowledge arising in the mind
of an Arahant, who is said to have annihilated all the cankers (vimuttasmin
vimuttamiti ñānam hoti).[23]
Cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodha) implies stoppage of an
already existing suffering in a way that it never arises again. Therefore, Nibbāna means
extinction itself; nothing more than that. The questions such as whether Nibbāna
exist
or not are meaningless, for any answer to such a question is not applicable to Nibbāna. It is beyond
our sensory phenomenon. Even the true nature of the existence of suffering can
not be labeled with the term such as existence or non-existence. If it is so,
how can we describe the extra-sensory perception of Nibbāna? Usually people come to the
judgment of something seeing its existence and non-existence.[24]
Nibbāna is beyond the
territory of existence and non-existence.
Noble Truth of
Path leading to the Cessation of Suffering
(Dukkha-nirodha gāmini patipadā-ariyasacca)
In the Second Noble Truth, it is pointed
out that suffering arises mainly because of the craving. In the real sense
here, craving represents all kinds of defilements, such as hatred and conceit.
With the eradication of craving, all sorts of defilements come to an end. That
is the reason why the cessation of suffering is called cessation of defilements
(kilesakkhaya or Āsavakkhaya). For the
eradication of all defilements headed by craving, the Buddha prescribed a path
which leads to the cessation of suffering. This path is generally known as
middle path (majjhimā patipadā), which consisted of eight
factors. Therefore, it is known as the Noble Eightfold Path (ariyo
atthangiko maggo).
The eight factors are given below as
follows:
Right Understanding or right vision (sammā titthi)
Right Thought or right aspiration (sammā sankappa)
Right Speech (sammā vācā)
Right Action (sammā kammanta)
Right Livelyhood (sammā Ajiva)
Right Effort (sammā vāyāma)
Right Mindfulness (sammā sati)
Right Concentration (sammā Samādhi)
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